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Sex Bias in Autoimmunity: From Animal Models to Clinical Research and Applications
Autoimmune diseases are characterized by an abnormal and self-directed immune response leading to damage and dysfunction of multiple organs and tissues. Most autoimmune diseases are recognized as affecting disproportionately more women than men, suggesting a crucial role of sex hormones in modulating immune responses, with estrogens being postulated as enhancing autoimmunity and androgens playing a protective role. It is also widely acknowledged that there is an overwhelming male bias in non-human (animal) studies of autoimmune diseases, while studies of both sexes in human research frequently fail to analyze results by sex. Underrepresentation of females in animal models of autoimmune disea...
Immunogenicity of Proteins Used as Therapeutics
Topic Editor Susan Richards is an employee of Sanofi and owns stock in the corporation. Topic Editor Bernard Maillere declares economic support from pharmaceutical companies (Novartis, Sanofi, and UCB) in the frame of collaborations aiming to evaluate the recognition by human T cells of therapeutic proteins and antibodies.
