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Sir George Downing first served under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell as diplomat in the Dutch Republic. Following the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 he transferred his allegiance to the new regime and was re-appointed to the post in The Hague. This period was characterized by fierce trade rivalry, which formed the background to the mid-century Anglo-Dutch wars. His defence of English commercial interests against the Dutch was crucial to his development as one of England's leading mercantilists. "A fearful gentleman" shows that both extremes of Downing's reputation stem from his experience and activities in the Republic: the odium resulting from his rounding up and delivery to their deaths of the new King's former enemies, and acknowledgement of Downing's role as administrator and reformer of English public finance, based on his observation of the more sophisticated Dutch system.
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Historical explanations need to keep step with the march of research if they are not to degenerate into empty cliches. It has long been a commonplace of 17th century history that the Anglo-Dutch Wars were the product of 'commercial rivalry'. This essay, first published twenty years ago, attempted to analyse and redefine this overworked traditional concept so as to explain more precisely how it led to naval wars between the Dutch and the English. Two idees fixes of contemporary English thought seemed especially significant; one was the persistent consciousness of English inferiority and backwardness in economic affairs when compared with the Dutch; the other, compounding this, was the equally...