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This is the first comprehensive study of an ingenious number-notation from the Middle Ages that was devised by monks and mainly used in monasteries. A simple notation for representing any number up to 99 by a single cipher, somehow related to an ancient Greek shorthand, first appeared in early-13th-century England, brought from Athens by an English monk. A second, more useful version, due to Cistercian monks, is first attested in the late 13th century in what is today the border country between Belgium and France: with this any number up to 9999 can be represented by a single cipher. The ciphers were used in scriptoria - for the foliation of manuscripts, for writing year-numbers, preparing i...
Social mobility is about climbing the societal ladder, or switching to a better, more promising or rewarding position. But how does this work for those already atop or very close to it? Climbing up the Social Ladder? explores instances of social mobility among different types of positional, decisional and status-defined elites in East-Central Europe during the long 19th century, at individual or group level.
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This book contains Aesop's as written by Valerius Babrius in the second century A.D.